BY DR. NNANA ONUOHA ARUKWE
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ABDEL RAHMAN IBN-KHALDUN 1332 - 1406
Intellectual Background
Born to an educated family, Ibn-Khaldun was schooled in the Koran, mathematics, and history. He served a variety of sultans in Tunis, Morocco, Spain, and Algeria as ambassador, chamberlain, and member of the scholars’ council during the era of the rule of Europe by the Moors.
Becoming very famous, Ibn-Khaldun would become a lecturer at the center of Islamic study, Al-Azhar Mosque University of Cairo.
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Contributions
In his well-attended lectures on society and sociology, Ibn-Khaldun stressed the importance of linking sociological thought and historical observation.
Ibn-Khaldun produced a corpus of work that had many ideas in common with contemporary sociology. He was committed to the scientific study of society, empirical research, and the search for causes of social phenomena. He devoted considerable attention to various social institutions (for example, politics, economy, religion, etc.) and their interrelationships. He was also interested in comparing primitive and modern societies.
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Historical Development of Sociology in Europe and the Western European Founding Fathers
The early beginnings of sociology in modern Europe can be traced to social philosophers of France, Scotland and Britain in the 18th century – the Enlightenment period in Western Europe.
The Enlightenment period is a crucial period in the history of Western Europe. It is highly revered because of the contribution of this period to the civilization of Western Europe. This period of Enlightenment that is highly respected by Europeans especially Western Europeans, coincides with the 18th century.
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The philosophers of the Enlightenment proposed that a new science of society in the modern era should be created and that it should serve as a guide to solving human problems.
Sociology in modern times was therefore born in the Western European country of France. It emerged in the first half of the 19th century. Social Anthropology was also born in modern times in Western Europe and it emerged in the second half of the 19th century.
Some precursors of sociology in Europe are:
MONTESQUIEU - FRANCE
ADAM FERGURSON - SCOTLAND
HENRI SAINT SIMON - FRANCE
They were the ones who sowed the seed of sociology in Europe in modern times.
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THE ENLIGHTENMENT
Time in Western European history when there was a revolution in human thought about the nature of humans and the nature of society.
Before the 18th century, the European mind was dominated and guided by the supernatural, thus the Bible and Biblical theories like the theory of creation, etc. Christianity dominated Europe from 5th century A.D. to 17th century A.D. so the European mind thought about human institution as well as other institutions as imperfect.
By the 18th century, the Enlightenment philosophers started questioning European superstition and some of the ideas in the Bible. According to them humans have ability to think – the powers of reasoning - and can use it to improve human society; and through the exercise of reasoning, humans will be enlightened.
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THE CONCEPT OF ENLIGHTENMENT
There was strong belief in human reasoning –That human reasoning being properly exercised and applied will lead to universal enlightenment. There will thus be progress or advancement.
Following this concept, they believed that there would not only be progress but that humans can start to direct or lead this progress towards improvement. Thus they believed that a science of society can furnish the data which humans can use in making progress.
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THE SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS UNDERLYING THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGY IN WESTERN EUROPE
Three of the background factors that led to the birth and development of sociology in modern times in Europe:
Scientific Revolution
The French Revolution
The Industrial Revolution
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AUGUSTINE COMTE (1798 – 1857) AND THE MAKING OF EUROPEAN SOCIOLOGY
Comte’s contribution is of crucial importance in the laying of the foundation of western European sociology. His contribution in the laying of the foundation of sociology is of two major importances: -
His “invention” of sociology: he apparently constructed the first sociological system in the Western world.
His ideas formed a system of thought which is relevant in the understanding of modern sociology.
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Biographical Sketch of Comte
Born in Montpellier, South of France in 1789 after the French Revolution
Attended primary and secondary school in this same region. He was brilliant, stubborn and rude.
Became the first applicant from the south of France to be admitted into the prestigious school of science – Ecole Polytechnic, which was established in 1794
Set out to become a physical scientist but, incidentally, because of the upheavals that followed the French Revolution, he could not complete his course of study.
In 1816, the students in the university that Comte attended were asked to leave their schools following a protest. His fortune, already dwindling, changed when he met Saint Simon.
This meeting of Comte and Saint Simon proved very crucial for the development and birth of western European sociology.
Between 1817 and 1822, Comte and Saint Simon discussed how to reorganize France, Europe and by extension the whole of humanity. And by 1822, they introduced a pamphlet called ‘PLAN FOR THE SCIENTIFIC OPERATION NECESSARY FOR THE REORGANISATION OF SOCIETY’. Society had to be reorganized on a scientific basis in their proposal.
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AUGUSTINE COMTE (1798 – 1857
Laid the foundation of western European sociology
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ELEMENTS OF THE SOCIOLOGICAL SYSTEM COMTE BUILT
He regarded sociology as a subject that has got two main branches – statistics and dynamics.
Another element is his “law of the three stages of evolution”, which is Comte’s theory of social change i.e. how society changes.
Along with this theory is an attempt by him to construct a HIERARCHY OF THE SCIENCES
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BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY THAT COMTE ADVOCATED
STATICS: According to Comte, sociology should study principles behind order, stability and harmony in the society. He therefore used the word “consensus” to explain statics. Thus, consensus means the order of how harmony is achieved in the society i.e. Comte’s Consensus.
DYNAMICS: A word that goes with change. Something that expands, not static. Dynamics is the branch of sociology that deals with the principles of social change. Comte did not view society wholly on the basis of consensus but also changes in the society – dynamics which enable us understand social change and progress.
Statics and dynamics existed in the early stage of sociology, in maturity they disappeared for analytical purposes.
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LAW OF THE THREE STAGES
THEOLOGICAL STAGE (FICTIVE STAGE)
In the theological stage, European mentality was dominated by the Bible; the supernatural; spiritual forces. People reasoned only with reference to the supernatural and according to Comte their social organization at this stage was militaristic. People only used their imagination and feeling.
METAPHYSICAL STAGE (ABSTRAT STAGE)
Later on this way of thinking was ruptured when people began to add to imagination and feeling, reasoning. That is the metaphysical stage. The society became legalistic.
SCIENTIFIC STAGE (POSITIVE STAGE)
Then to imagination, feeling and reasoning was added experimentation. That was the scientific stage and the social organization was industrial.
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Sociology
Biology
Chemistry
Physics
Mathematics
HIERARCHY OF THE SCIENCES
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COMTE’S PROBLEMS
In a rapidly changing society how would one achieve consensus? This was a question asked by Comte and this question led him to found sociology in western Europe. He then concluded that ‘order’ is necessary to have consensus in the society. How then do we cope with the rapid changes in society like in Nigeria? How do we achieve consensus?
Comte’s problem was the conflicting interests in society i.e. he was concerned with how to achieve consensus in a society that does not share common basic interests; a modern society that has got lots of divisive infrastructure and rapid social changes. He believed that society must have order and progress.
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EMILE DURKHEIM (1858 – 1917) AND THE AUTONOMY OF SOCIOLOGY
HISTORICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
He secured the autonomy of sociology. That is to say that he fought and succeeded in putting sociology into modern university curriculum.
He was the first ever lecturer, in France, in courses of sociology.
He was the first professor of sociology in France after the French parliament passed a decree to allow a professor of sociology.
He founded the first sociology journal in the modern world, founded in 1896 and called L’Annéé Sociologique. This proved an important tool in the shaping of early European sociology.
In 1879 he published a book called Suicide and this goes to show that he is a pioneer in the use of statistics. He made Suicide a major sociological problem. This was the first empirical research in modern sociology, and he used sociological statistics in analyzing suicide i.e. The use of statistics, in the analysis of sociological problems.
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EMILE DURKHEIM (1858 – 1917)
Secured the autonomy of sociology
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IDEAS THAT EMILE DURKHEIM FORMULATED AND DISSEMINATED
He published four major books called classics: -
1893 – ‘The Division of labour in Society’
1895 – ‘The rules of Sociological Method’. A very important book that outlined sociological themes in the society.
1897 – ‘Suicide’
1912 – ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious Life: A sociological study of Religion’
The books are also relevant in social anthropology
The idea of consensus runs across the four books – ‘The Division of Labour in Society’, the Rules of Sociological Method, ‘Suicide’ and ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. He took these ideas from Comte and elaborated on them.
‘Division of labour in society’, ‘Suicide’ and ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious Life form what is known as his Trilogy – study of parts.
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HOW DURKHEIM TREATED COMTE’S PROBLEM
The concept which Durkheim used is social solidarity. This has the same idea as Comte’s consensus.
DIVISION OF LABOUR IN SOCIETY: Emile was prompted to deal on this because people look at division of labour as economy. It increases economic activities. Emile did not accept this idea.
Comte holds a view that division of labour is a threat to the society; that it has a negative value to the society. For Emile, instead of division of labour breaking the society, he holds that it will help build the society.
Emile distinguished two types of consensus: -
Mechanical solidarity
Organic solidarity
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MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY is achieved in primitive societies in which the individuals are similar. Members share very strong neighbours and live together. Collective consciousness is a uniting force and common beliefs and sentiments are characteristics of mechanical solidarity.What makes mechanical solidarity easy to achieve in primitive societies is there are minimal individual differences and as such little or no division of labour. So consensus is easily achieved.
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY is characteristic of modern or advanced societies which consist of dissimilar individuals. Organic solidarity rests on interdependence which is itself a product of the division of labour. It derives from differences between individuals as a society becomes increasingly differentiated in functions. There is a lot of individualism. There is diversity of views, religion, etc. Emile said that in these societies too, consensus is possible because of functional interdependence of people in the society. He holds that division of labour brings high level solidarity that is known as organic solidarity in modern societies.
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SUICIDE: Durkheim is a pioneer in the use of statistics in the analysis of sociological problems. After the Industrial Revolution, people started to kill themselves by hanging, because of the many social problems that the Industrial Revolution brought in its wake, as sophisticated methods of killing themselves have not been developed then. As suicide rate galloped, people started to wonder and Durkheim said that suicide is not a unique phenomenon. He was only worried when the rate of suicide was high.
He then collected his statistics from Europe and discovered that there are various groups involved in the act e.g. religious groups, family, childless couples, etc. he saw that Catholics seem to commit less suicide while protestants commit more. He held that suicide occur least among the Jews, followed by Catholics and then the Protestants commit it most.
CONCLUSION: The simple conclusion he drew was that low rate of suicide, characterize societies where the social solidarity is very strong. Whereas high rate of suicide prevail in the society where the individual is very loose in integration with the social structure.
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Based on this conclusion, he recognized four types of suicide
ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE: This is associated with a society where the social integration is very strong. It is found in primitive societies. Altruistic suicide is opposite of egoistic suicide. Here one kills himself because of the survival or interests of the group. It occurs when the individual is strongly attached to society. It rests on the existence of a strong “collective conscience”. E.g. in Japan during wars, Palestinian/Arab suicide bombers.
EGOISTIC SUICIDE: Found in modern Societies. Here the individual has become loosely integrated in the society that that individual falls into despair or he losses hope. He feels he is on his own. He feels that his family has disserted him. This puts him in a state of suicidogenic impulse.
ANOMIC SUICIDE: This also like Egoistic suicide prevails in modern societies. When the society is in a state of anomie, it means that the society is in normlessness or anarchy. It is a situation where old norms that serve the society have disintegrated or ceased to exist and no new ones have arisen to replace them. Under such circumstances, a lot of people commit suicide. It happens when there are rapid social changes just like we have in Nigeria. Anomie is opposite is consensus.
FATALISTIC SUICIDE: This occurs when regulation is too excessive unlike anomic sicide, which is the opposite. The classic example is the slave who takes his own life because of the hopelessness of oppressive regulation of every of his action
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In THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE, Emile argues that religion has a social function to perform.. This is implied in the general statement which Durkheim developed from his study of the religious life of the Arunta people of Australia when he applied his study of religion to the group collectively.
The general statement is that ‘group life is the generating source of efficient cause of religion; that religious ideas and practices refer to or symbolize the social groups; that the distinction between sacred and profane is found universally and has important implication for social life as a whole’.
Thus religion functions principally to create and maintain social solidarity. Religious ceremonies are always held to promote sentiments and then enhance solidarity amongst members. The ceremonies of Easter and Christmas are two of such sentimental solidarity religious ceremonies in European Christianinty.
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MARXISM – KARL MARX’S CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIOLOGY (1818 – 1883)
Karl Marx was not interested in ‘what hold society together’ like Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim. His main preoccupation was essentially what tears it apart and how one would radically transform the society. He looked into conflict and with conflict goes revolution. Revolution is not just change but a radical change. A complete overhaul of the entire social system. Marxism, which is a system of thought named after Karl Marx is the most comprehensive theory of conflictual social change in society. Karl Marx was born in 1818 and was still in the university when Comte formulated sociology. Marx never used the word sociology. In fact, he read Comte’s work and criticized it saying it was the work of a schoolboy, that it was too religious and speculative. He said that Comte’s work was not scientific enough. Marx scorned Comte’s work and rejected the word sociology.
He, like Comte, was formulating a synthetic science of society. And, like Comte, also he was preoccupied with the reconstruction of the society. But the difference was that while Comte talked of society as evolutionary, Karl Marx in the reconstruction of society was revolutionary.
Thirdly, unlike other founding fathers of sociology, Karl Marx’s thought cut across the academic boundary of university disciplines. He was a multifaceted social thinker. He was versatile because his taught cuts across political science, economics, philosophy, sociology, etc.
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KARL MARX(1818 - 1883)
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Apart from all these, he was a complex human being. There are three levels of his work; namely: he was:
A SOCIAL SCIENTIST: Although Marx’s writings dealt largely with the revolutionary labour movement, they were also the work of a social scientist. Marx’s thought cuts across political science, economics, philosophy, sociology, etc.
AN IDEOLOGIST: He was interested in propounding social theories that leads people to action. He used propaganda to stir people’s awareness.
A MILITANT POLITICIAN: Marx was not only interested in propounding theories, he goes to the streets as well arousing people and leading violent revolutions, for he never believed that any revolution could be peaceful.
The overriding aim of his doing these was to ensure the overthrow of capitalism and its replacement with socialism. Marxism as a system of government would be adopted by the USSR (defunct), Cuba, China, many Latin American and African countries.
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BACKGROUNDS TO THE BIRTH OF KARL MARX
Between 1830 and 1848, there were so many popular uprisings and disturbances occurring all over Europe. One of the causes of these uprising was the industrial revolution. People started to complain. The complainants were mostly the proletariat who formed a new class with the advent of the industrial revolution.
In the first half of the 19th century, there were many wars being fought in Germany, the heart of Europe, which had become one of the largest and most troublesome spots in Europe. In 1870, Germany was unified. Prussia and Rhineland got united to become one Germany. Prussia was then ruled by a monarch – Otto von Bismarck. Its capital was Berlin. Rhineland was a colony of Prussia and Bonn was its capital.
Economically, Germany was predominantly agricultural, with a large percentage of her agriculturists living in the rural areas. Industrial development did not take place in Germany until 1850. By the end of the 19th century, Germany had overtaken France and Britain, only second to the U.S.A in industrial development.
Politically, there was no elected parliament in Germany. Unlike in France, Germany’s politics was dominated by aristocrats.
Socially, Germany was also stagnant. There was the king, the aristocracy, the merchants, the artisans and the serfs.
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BRIEF BIO
On 5th of May 1818, Karl Marx was born. His father was a lawyer and had just converted to Christianity two years to the birth of Karl Marx. The name Karl is a Christian name meaning Charles in German.
His ancestral religion was Judaism. Marx described religion as an instrument of oppression and the most powerful tool of government or the ruling class. He called Christianity ‘the most immoral religion in the world’ and Judaism he called ‘the cult of money and mammon’.
After school, he enrolled into the University of Bonn to read law. After a year he transferred to the University of Berlin where he added to his study of history, philosophy and this philosophy became his major field of interest.
Karl Marx went to the disciples of Hegel and became a ‘Hegelian rebel’ at Berlin University. Hegel influenced Marx’s thought a lot.
He got involved in students political activism. When Karl Marx got his Ph.D. in 1842 in philosophy, he wanted to take to teaching (philosophy) in the University but this could not materialize because his friend who was to help him secure the teaching job got fired. To make a living, he resorted to freelance journalism and at one time he was the editor of a Cologne newspaper. Later he resigned and went to Paris where there was a collection of socialist movements.
In 1844, he started intensive self education in Paris and got into the working class movement. He was expelled from France. He went to Belgium. He was also expelled from Belgium when there was a revolution in that country.
He went back to Germany and started radical publications, which might have triggered off the 1948 revolution in Germany. He returned to Rhineland; his birth place. Later he left for Paris when the German government declared him persona non grata. In France, the French government gave him two options – he should either live in some remote area of France away from Paris (the centre of action) or forget about living in France.
Of course Karl Marx rejected the first option and went to England where he settled down, improved his knowledge of economics and developed consciousness in international relations. He was so poor that he used to have problems with his landlords. Three out of his four children died of malnutrition.
Before then, when Marx was living in Brussels, he and Engels organized migrant German workers into the ‘Communist League’. During the first meeting of the communist league under Marx and Engels, Marx could not attend due to financial difficulty.
The communist league under Engels and Marx held the second time in 1847 when Marx and Engels were asked to write the communist manifesto which they did. The communist manifesto was later published in London early in 1848.
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LEADING IDEAS OF KARL MARX’S SOCIAL THEORY
There are numerous such ideas of Karl Marx’s social theory but these four that are interrelated are going to be treated:
The economy is the foundation stone of any society. This is the first leading idea of his social theory. In this, Marx regarded the economy as the infrastructure – infrastructure in the Marxist sense.
All the other institutions of society are dependent on the economy (infrastructure). They are grouped together and he called them ‘the ideological superstructure’. Such institutions are political organization, law, religion, philosophy, art, literature, science, morality, etc.
The third idea is that violent social conflict is a feature of society since written history of all societies. This conflict is the engine of social change or progress.
The last idea is that there must be a revolutionary reconstruction of society – capitalism to socialism.
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MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
Max Weber is same generation as Emile Durkheim. He is a German by birth like Karl Marx.
The history of classical sociology can be broken into three parts:-
The Formative part of sociology
The period when it attained independence and became a university discipline
Further development of sociology
Max Weber is associated with the third part. He is noted because he introduced a highly sophisticated and rigorous methodology into modern sociology. Like Karl Marx, his thought/work is also complex in that he permeates the boundary of the social sciences and university disciplines.
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MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
He shifted emphasis from society to the individual.
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Biography of Max Weber
Max Weber was born in Erfurt, Germany in April 1864. He was born into a bourgeoisie home that was visited frequently by both leading politicians and academics. His father was a lawyer and his mother a prominent politician born of a clergyman.
In 1869, five years after his birth, his family moved to Berlin. The young Max grew close to his authoritarian father but he was also influenced by his uncle and aunt.
In October 1882, he went in to study law at the University of Heidelberg. He got his Ph.D. in 1892 and his Ph.D. shows a combination of legal, economic, and historical studies.
In 1893 he was appointed a lecturer on law in Berlin University where he gave lectures on behalf of his teacher, Goldschmidt, while maintaining his position at the Bar. Later, in 1894, Weber who was active in German politics was appointed a professor of Economics at the University of Heidelberg where he succeeded his former teacher, Knies, as a Professor.
Soon after this, at about 1900, he suffered a nervous breakdown which lasted for four years and which seriously disrupted his academic activities. He travelled extensively in order to regain his health.
By 1902, he had started resuming his academic activities. And in 1904, on invitation by his friend, he visited the U.S.A. where he presented a paper and had touring experience which influenced his conceptions of political and bureaucratic organizations. That same year Max Weber published a book, ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’, which is perhaps his most famous work. In this work, he studied the influence of religion on economic behaviour. He carried out studies on ancient China, India and Jewish culture.
By 1895, before the end of the century, the population of Germany had now reversed to 4/5 urban. Berlin for example had a population of just under half a million; but by 1895 it had reached four million.
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Political and Intellectual Backgrounds
POLITICAL BACKGROUND
The political situation remained almost as it was in the time of Karl Marx. The landed aristocracy was still in charge of political power. The urban bourgeoisie were still not interested in politics and factory workers (proletariat) were still excluded by legislation from taking part in politics.
INTELLECTUAL BACKGROUND
Marxism – the ideas of Karl Marx was the dominant factor in German intellectual circles. Weber read Marx intensively and at length and subjected Marx’s work to severe criticisms.
Another intellectual influence was the conflict between religion and science. It was a problem that science and religion had come into crisis in Europe. For Weber religion represents a past way of life and science represents modernity – the modern way of life.
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WEBER’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE SOCIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Weber broke away from the tradition of the other pioneers and laid emphasis on the individual. He shifted emphasis from society to the individual.
His critical confrontation with the ghost of Karl Marx.
WEBER’S GREAT CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Social actions are of importance to the sociologist. Max Weber held that there could be four types of social action which the sociologist should consider.
These are:-
Rational action in relation to a goal
Rational action in relation to a value
Affective or emotional action
Traditional action
MOTIVATIONS OF THE ACTION
REASON (for 1 & 2)
EMOTION (for 3)
SENTIMENTS (for 4)
WEBER’S MOST IMPRESSIVE CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIOLOGY – HIS SOCIOLOGY OF POLITICS
The Weberian studies in politics include his typology of authority. He also wrote famous essays on bureaucracy (the oppressive machine); the primary machinery of the modern civil society. Weber opened the avenue for studies in modern sociology thereby.
In respect of social and political organization, Max Weber analysed three pure types of legitimate authority, these claim legitimacy and expect obedience to their commands.
THE TYPOLOGY OF AUTHORITY
In the typology if authority Weber uses as a criterion ‘what motivates you to obey the authority’. On the basis of his legitimacy of authority, Weber recognized three types of authority: -
TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY
LEGAL- RATIONAL AUTHORITY
CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
Weber’s Legal-Rational or bureaucratic organization involves a hierarchy of offices which relate to one another in an impersonal way. Duties and powers and authority are clearly determined and appointments made achieved based on specific qualifications. A bureaucratic structure makes it possible to co-ordinate and mobilize large political and economic organizations. Both rationalization and bureaucratization are on the increase. Yet Weber recognized that a bureaucratic system can be disadvantageous when it becomes too large to deal adequately with individual or personal situations.
The characteristics of Weber’s modern bureaucracy are:
Impersonality
Hierarchy
Division of labour
Social contract
Recruitment
Remuneration
Commitment
Career structure
Separation of the office from the officials
Discipline
THREE MAJOR AREAS OF CHARISMATIC AUTHORITY
RELIGION: In religion (the greatest among all) the charismatic person is believed to be endowed with supernatural powers which gives him powers to perform miracles.
POLITICS: Politicians also possess charisma with which they carry the people along with them in their political dealings and with which they charm votes out of people and with which they also seduce the people with their tongues.
MILITARY LEADERSHIP: There is also charisma is military leaders. People attribute many charismatic abilities to military leaders which brings them reverence from both the army they lead and the civil society. However, charisma does not last forever e.g. Emeka Ojukwu possessed all the charisma in the world during the Nigeria/Biafra civil war only to come back in 1983 and not be able to secure a senatorial seat.
HERBERT SPENCER (1820 – 1903)
Herbert Spencer was an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist.
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies.
He was said to be an enthusiastic exponent of evolution and even wrote about evolution before Darwin did. As a sort of polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, literature, biology, sociology, and psychology. Spencer was "the most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the 19TH Century. But his influence declined sharply after 1900.
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